1. INTRODUCTION

Coastal habitats are vital, offering a wide range of ecosystem services (ES) essential to human well-being (Haines-Young & Potschin, 2018) and biodiversity conservation (Barbier et al., 2011; Costanza et al., 1997). According to the Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICES), coastal areas generate provisioning services (e.g., fisheries), regulating services (e.g., protection from erosion and natural hazards), and cultural or recreational services (e.g., tourism) (Haines-Young & Potschin, 2018).

The economic valuation of coastal environments is a dynamic interdisciplinary field (Bateman et al., 2011) aimed at quantifying coastal areas’ market and non-market contributions, including fisheries, tourism, coastal protection, and carbon sequestration. While the economic relevance of these ecosystems is well-established, the challenges posed by Climate Change (CC)—driven by both natural and anthropogenic factors—necessitate a re-evaluation of their value and resilience (UN, 2022; WHO, 2016). Recent research calls for the integration of CC dimensions into coastal ecosystem valuation frameworks (Anthoff et al., 2009).

There is a growing body of literature focusing on preferences for implementing adaptation strategies in coastal regions to counteract climate change impacts (Mallette et al., 2021). This study focuses on the Galician coast —a region with a high dependency on the fishing industry, where CC is bringing significant disruptions. Unlike terrestrial systems, where climate impacts are more direct, marine ecosystems are influenced by a complex interplay of oceanographic dynamics (e.g., currents, salinity) and broader climate variability (e.g., warming trends, atmospheric shifts) (Bode et al., 2020).

We offer a novel contribution by comparing adaptation preferences among coastal and inland residents in Galicia—an aspect rarely addressed in the context of CC adaptation. While previous studies have examined preferences among tourists and residents (Loomis & Larson, 1994), few have explored this topic specifically for climate adaptation measures. We add to the literature following Hoyos et al. (2009) who explored the role of identity on preferences for forests in the Bask Country.

Hence, the primary objectives of this study are threefold: (1) to assess public preferences and willingness-to-pay (WTP) for various climate adaptation strategies aimed at protecting key coastal ES, such as seawater quality, ecosystem productivity, and beach conditions related to jellyfish; (2) to compare preferences between coastal residents and inland populations; and (3) to explore how identification with the local identity influences preferences for adaptation to CC.

Understanding public preferences and WTP for coastal adaptation options has considerable implications for policymaking, sustainable tourism, and environmental conservation. As emphasized by the Spanish Ministry of Environment (MITECO, 2020), public knowledge and perception of climate adaptation are crucial for guiding educational campaigns, enhancing civic engagement, and supporting cost-benefit analyses for policy development.

This article is structured as follows: after the introduction, the second section outlines the characteristics of the study area. Next, the methodology section specifies the aspects related to the research methods used. The fourth section presents the results obtained after the relevant empirical analyses, while the fifth section is dedicated to the discussion of the findings. Finally, the study concludes with the main results, limitations, and prospects.

2. STUDY AREA

Spain is highly vulnerable to climate alterations due to both its geographic location and socioeconomic characteristics (MAUC & MITECO, 2019; Ulargui, 2018). Galicia, the Spanish autonomous community with the longest coastline —1,885 km excluding islands and up to 2,555 km when including all coastal features (Pousa, 2023; BOE, 2023)— is characterized by unique estuarine systems known as 'rías' and a globally significant concentration of phytoplankton (Spyrakos et al., 2011). This mesotidal region supports substantial aquaculture, particularly shellfish production (Blanco et al., 2021).

To operationalize the concept of 'coast,' this study includes all Galician municipalities with direct access to the waterfront (Figure 1), totaling 5,009 km² (16.9% of Galicia), distributed across 82 municipalities (26.2%) and home to over 1.4 million people (53.34%). The region features diverse land covers, predominantly forested areas, with variation between the north (grasslands and croplands) and south (shrubland and agriculture).

Figure 1Coast lands found in the Galician municipalities (NW Spain) according to Instituto de Estudos do Territorio (2019) 

Climate change (CC) translates into various impacts in this study area, which entail profound implications at the ecosystem level. One of the most evident effects is the rise in temperature; in Galicia, air temperatures in the oceanic zone have increased by approximately +0.1 ºC per decade since 1900, while sea temperatures have risen at a similar rate since 1960 (Fernández, 2006). These changes affect both native species —such as the disappearance of traditional populations like the plaice, highly sensitive to warm waters— and the spread of invasive species (Pereira et al., 2021; Bañón et al., 2024; Capdevila-Argüelles et al., 2011; Fernández, 2006). Alongside the expansion of maritime trade, rising sea temperatures have facilitated biological invasions along the Galician coast and increased the presence of toxins (Blanco et al., 2021) and parasites, particularly in clam and oyster farming (García & Remiro, 2013). Furthermore, warming intensifies ocean stratification (Pörtner et al., 2019), promoting eutrophication (UN, 2017) —an especially concerning process in the sensitive estuarine ecosystems of Galicia (Villares et al., 1999).

Eutrophication has two key ecological consequences: the proliferation of jellyfish and the overgrowth of algae (Dorgham, 2014). Jellyfish thrive in nutrient-rich, low-competition environments, often becoming apex predators and disrupting marine trophic chains (Marambio et al., 2021; Tiller et al., 2015). Their reproductive dynamics are strongly influenced by rising temperatures, which accelerate their proliferation (MITECO, 2011). Additionally, extreme precipitation events are altering salinity levels in estuarine systems such as the Rías Baixas (Des et al., 2021), reducing upwelling, daily water renewal, and overall productivity (Fernández, 2006), further encouraging jellyfish outbreaks (Ferrer et al., 2024). Historically rare along the Galician coast, jellyfish have become an occasional threat to tourism and coastal activities, sometimes even forcing temporary beach closures. On the other hand, eutrophication promotes the proliferation of both micro and macroalgae (Cox et al., 2021; Smetacek & Zingone, 2013; Liu et al., 2021), with implications for human health (FAO, 2023), tourism (The Ocean Foundation, 2019), and native biodiversity (FAO, 2023; The Ocean Foundation, 2019). In Galicia, the invasion of Sargassum muticum (Japanese seaweed) has notably altered coastal ecosystems, displacing native species and reducing biodiversity (García-Oliveira et al., 2020; Vaz-Pinto et al., 2019).

Another major impact is the acidification of ocean waters. Since 1975, the pH of the first 700 meters of the Atlantic off the northwest Iberian Peninsula has decreased by 0.0164 units per decade (Castro et al., 2009; Lavín et al., 2012), affecting organisms' ability to build shells and interfering with key biological processes (Marambio et al., 2021). In Galicia, this phenomenon threatens provisioning ecosystem services by jeopardizing shellfish species such as mussels —vital to the regional economy— and other particularly vulnerable marine resources (García & Remiro, 2013). Coupled with these changes, recent studies indicate a decline in the productivity of local marine species (Rossi et al., 2019; Veiga-Malta et al., 2019) and a decrease in catches of traditional species like sole (Fernández, 2006). Furthermore, the geographical range of some species has shifted, as seen with the gradual expansion of the Japanese oyster’s cultivation range (Des et al., 2022), reflecting broader ecological transformations.

Lastly, the region faces increasing risks linked to sea-level rise and coastal erosion. Water levels have been steadily rising, contributing to more frequent episodes of erosion and flooding (Nieto et al., 2023). This trend is compounded by a rise in wave energy impacting the Cantabrian coast and a lengthening of storm durations (Medina, 2008). Consequently, erosion —already considered moderate along the Galician coast (Ibarra & Belmonte, 2017)— is expected to worsen. Between the 20th century and 1990, sea levels along the Atlantic Galician coast rose by 1 to 2 mm per year, accelerating to 4 to 8 mm annually thereafter (García & Remiro, 2013). The rate varies by location; for example, near Vigo, sea level has increased by over 2 cm per decade since 1940 (Bode, 2011).

Additionally, there are other anthropogenic issues, such as the growth of global maritime trade carrying significant risks related to oil spills (Loureiro et al., 2009; Monaco et al., 2017; Vidal-Abad et al., 2024), as well as the impacts of higher tourism and population pressure (Barca-Bravo et al., 2008; Villacampa et al., 2017).

All these factors affect the ES provided by altering species composition and the abundance of individuals, which are essential for activities like coastal fishing and shellfish harvesting. Similarly, they impact regulation and maintenance services by reducing the genetic diversity of certain species while simultaneously increasing the prevalence of parasites and toxins. Lastly, recreational or cultural ES are affected, with a decline in the aesthetic value of coastal areas and a reduction in leisure activities such as swimming or boating (Kennerley et al., 2022; Wolf et al., 2017). In sum, these processes collectively lead to declines in regulation, provisioning, and cultural ES, resulting in reduced productivity and recreational activities in a region highly dependent on the sea.

3. MATERIALS & METHODS

To examine population preferences regarding climate adaptation on the Galician coast, we employed a Discrete Choice Experiment (DCE), a method widely used in economics for its flexibility and close resemblance to real-life decision-making scenarios (Louviere et al., 2000). It presents respondents with sets of potential alternatives that vary across several attributes.

These alternatives represent characteristics or attributes of a good, each measured at different levels. According to these authors, the sets of choices presented to respondents include at least two other alternatives that represent potential improvement plans and a constant alternative, known as the "status quo" (Hoyos, 2010), which represents the current situation.

Participants are asked to select their preferred option. By analyzing the participants' preferences on these choice cards, it is possible to estimate the monetary value that they assign to each displayed attribute.

For the experimental analysis, we performed a mixed logit regression analysis, based on the premises of random utility models. The Mixed Logit Model (MXL) allows for preference heterogeneity across individuals by incorporating random coefficients. Thus, although utility remains unobservable, we expect individuals to choose the alternative that provides them with the highest utility while accounting for variation in preferences:

In the formula, U represents the associated utility generated by each selection made, which contains a vector x representing the various attributes associated with each election, including the explicit cost. The parameters β follow a normal distribution and may vary across individuals, capturing preference heterogeneity. The term ε accounts for unobserved factors affecting utility.

To estimate the willingness to pay (WTP) for each attribute level based on the expressed preferences, we consider the specification of the coefficients in the model. It is obtained using the following equation:

This represents the amount of money that makes respondents indifferent between having a particular type of coastal adaptation program or not having it, while preserving a larger budget.

To establish the different attributes of the DCE and their respective levels, a face-to-face focus group was conducted, consisting of workers from maritime and fisheries sectors, such as shellfish harvesters, coastal fishermen, and representatives of local tourist-sport facilities; in addition, we were assisted as well by biologists with expertise in the marine environment. Based on these consultations, attributes and corresponding levels were determined, as detailed in Table 1; these attributes are estimated for 30 years, given that climate projections for the area have shown to be more severe than expected and attempt to capture this environmental decline the most realistically and understandably possible.

The choice cards were developed using the JMP program (JMP Pro 17, 2023). The final model exhibited very good levels of efficiency (D-Efficiency = 99.34; G-Efficiency = 95.24; A-Efficiency = 98.76), as well as an acceptable prediction variance (σ2 = .37). Each participant completed a total of nine choice cards, with each card containing three alternatives plus a status quo option.

In addition to the mere presentation of alternatives, the decision was made to incorporate images for two fundamental purposes: enhancing intuitive understanding and making the questionnaire more engaging. In the case of the status quo option, it is important to clarify that choosing “none of the alternatives” has implications. In other words, by not taking action, participants are effectively deciding that these ecosystem resources may be potentially lost. The first choice is presented below (Figure 2), and the valuation question can be found in the Appendix (A.1).

Figure 2Example of a Choice Experiment card from our survey 

4. RESULTS

Approximately 60% of respondents reside along the Galician coast, while 85.20% of them maintain direct ties to the region —through primary or secondary homes or family connections. The remaining 14.80% are recurrent visitors, averaging 36.91 days of coastal visits annually (SD = 22.82), primarily during holiday periods.

Provincial distribution aligns with population patterns, with most participants residing in A Coruña (44.85%) and Pontevedra (35.27%), which mirrors the regional demographics according to IGE (2024a).

Educational attainment reveals two primary groups: 44% of participants have not completed university studies, while the remainder either possess or are pursuing a degree. Regarding employment, 56.02% are in full-time paid positions, and 28.59% report monthly incomes above €2,000. Income distribution shows representation across economic strata, although education and income levels may be slightly overrepresented due to the online survey format.

Responses to the Climate Change Perception Scale (Appendix A.2) show broad agreement that CC is real and anthropogenic. The highest-rated items include: 'Climate change is real' (M = 5.99, SD = 1.58), 'It causes biodiversity loss' (M = 5.98, SD = 1.48), and 'It may intensify extreme weather events' (M = 5.96, SD = 1.54). Lowest agreement was found for reverse-coded items downplaying its effects.

The Local Climate Change Threat Scale (Appendix A.3) reveals that participants view CC as a major threat to their area of residence or visitation. Highest concern was expressed for: 'Increase in extreme climatic events' (M = 5.64, SD = 1.58), 'Marine water pollution' (M = 5.49, SD = 1.69), 'Disturbance from invasive species' (M = 5.49, SD = 1.60), and 'Impacts on fisheries' (M = 5.48, SD = 1.61).

In the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Scale (see Appendix A.4) we observe that there is a relatively high degree of similarity across the different mean scores obtained from the different items. "I am happy to be a member of my ethnic group" (M = 5.58; SD = 1.49) and "I feel good about my ethnic or cultural tradition" (M = 5.54; SD = 1.45) stand out slightly, with the highest mean scores.

At the opposite end of the spectrum, we find the item "I feel strongly committed to my ethnic group" (M = 5.13; SD = 1.54) with the lowest mean score. As observable in Table 2, these three overall scales provide means which are not different across the various groups.

5. DISCUSSION

This study highlights the strong societal support for climate adaptation strategies along the Galician coast. Using a DCE, we find that both coastal and inland populations show a clear willingness to support environmental improvement plans, placing the highest value on seawater quality, followed by ecosystem productivity. These results are consistent with Meyerhoff et al. (2021), who noted that recreational and safety aspects often outweigh purely ecological concerns in public preferences for coastal management.

Coastal residents display the highest WTP for seawater quality —215.15 €/year for high and 178.49 €/year for medium quality— reflecting their closer ties to coastal conditions. Inland residents also highly value seawater quality, with WTPs of 188.79 €/year for high and 152.60 €/year for medium quality but show a slightly stronger WTP for ecosystem productivity (122.96 €/year) compared to coastal residents (108.92 €/year). Although generally disliked, the presence of jellyfish plays a secondary role in shaping preferences, consistently generating negative WTPs—more pronounced among inland respondents (–13.26 €/year) than coastal ones (–10.24 €/year).

The role of identity emerges as a key factor differentiating preferences between groups. For inland residents, a stronger identity increases the likelihood of sticking with the status quo, suggesting a cautious attitude toward change or a weaker perceived connection to coastal environmental issues. In contrast, among coastal residents, a stronger ethnic identity decreases the probability of accepting the status quo, reinforcing the idea that cultural ties drive greater support for adaptation measures. These differential effects underscore how local identity shapes environmental attitudes differently depending on place-based experiences.

Other sociodemographic factors reveal additional nuances. Marine sector employment increases the likelihood of maintaining the status quo among coastal respondents, possibly reflecting concerns about the impacts of change on professional interests. Higher income consistently reduces status quo preference across both groups, indicating a greater openness to environmental investment among wealthier individuals. Age shows divergent effects: inland and older individuals are less likely to accept the status quo, while coastal older respondents tend to prefer it. Gender has no significant effect.

Overall, while both groups value similar attributes, coastal residents exhibit stronger, more consistent preferences for adaptation measures, likely reflecting their deeper cultural and emotional ties to the coastal environment.

Future research should aim for broader representation of inland residents without coastal ties and mitigate potential online survey biases. Additionally, in-person data collection in coastal zones —especially among tourists— and surveys across different seasons could provide a more nuanced, spatially detailed understanding of public preferences for coastal adaptation strategies.