The association of digit ratio (2D:4D) with academic performance: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Barra lateral do artigo

PDF (Inglés) XML (Inglés) HTML (Inglés)
Publicado: 2025-12-22

Contido principal do artigo

Aroa Otero Rodríguez
Universidade de Vigo
Spain
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1875-6503
Biografía
Daniel González-Devesa
Universidad Católica de Ávila
Spain
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6254-6461
Biografía
Rocío Carballo-Afonso
Universidade de Vigo
Spain
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0882-2899
Biografía
José Carlos Diz-Gómez
Universidade de Vigo
Spain
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6860-575X
Biografía
Carlos Ayán-Pérez
Universidade de Vigo
Spain
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3374-843X
Biografía
Vol. 1 Núm. 35 (2025), Artigos
https://doi.org/10.15304/ie.35.10690
Recibido: 2025-05-20 Publicado: 2025-12-22
Cómo citar Citado por

Resumo

This systematic review and meta-analysis aim to critically analyze and synthesize the best available scientific evidence regarding the influence of digit ratio on academic performance. A systematic search for investigations providing data on the relationship between both outcomes was conducted in four electronic databases up to January 2025. The Joanna Briggs Institute Critical Appraisal Checklist for Analytical Cross-Sectional Studies was used to assess the methodological quality of the investigations. The meta-analysis indicated a lack of correlation between the digit ratio of the right hand (eight studies; 2,150 participant) [R = 0.023 (95% CI: -0.028 to 0.075)], and of the left hand (six studies; 2,031 participants) [R = 0.025 (95% CI: -0.079 to 0.028)] and academic performance, regardless of sex. These findings unequivocally show that there is no association between digit ratio and academic performance. Neither sex nor hand side are factors that could alter this lack of association.

Descargas

Os datos de descarga ainda non están dispoñibles.

Detalles do artigo

Citas

Adenowo, T. K., & Oladokun, O. P. (2019). Digital Ratio and Academic Performances of College Students. International Journal of Recent Innovations in Medicine and Clinical Research, 1(1), 29-36. https://doi.org/10.18231/j.ijrimcr.2019.005

Allaway, H. C., Bloski, T. G., Pierson, R. A., & Lujan, M. E. (2009). Digit ratios (2D: 4D) determined by computer‐assisted analysis are more reliable than those using physical measurements, photocopies, and printed scans. American Journal of Human Biology: The Official Journal of the Human Biology Association, 21(3), 365-370. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajhb.20892

Anas, Y. I., & Badamasi, M. I. (2021). Relationship between second to fourth digit ratio (2D: 4D) and academic performance among students in Nigeria. Bayero Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences, 13(2), 87-93. https://doi.org/10.4314/bajopas.v13i2.12

Aydoğan Avşar, P., Kara, T., Kocaman, O., & Akkuş, M. (2024). The relationship between digit ratio (2D:4D) and intelligence levels in specific learning disorders. Early human development, 196, 106085. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2024.106085

Barel, E., & Tzischinsky, O. (2017). The role of sex hormones and of 2D: 4D ratio in individual differences in cognitive abilities. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 29(4), 497-507. https://doi.org/10.1080/20445911.2017.1279166

Brosnan, M. J. (2008). Digit ratio as an indicator of numeracy relative to literacy in 7‐year‐old British schoolchildren. British Journal of Psychology, 99(1), 75-85. https://doi.org/10.1348/000712607X197406

Bull, R., & Benson, P. J. (2006). Digit ratio (2D: 4D) and the spatial representation of magnitude. Hormones and Behavior, 50(2), 194-199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2006.02.008

Coco, M., Perciavalle, V., Maci, T., Nicoletti, F., Di Corrado, D., & Perciavalle, V. (2011). The second-to-fourth digit ratio correlates with the rate of academic performance in medical school students. Molecular medicine reports, 4(3), 471-476. https://doi.org/10.3892/mmr.2011.456

Darling-Hammond, L. (2000). Teacher quality and student achievement. Education policy analysis archives, 8, 1-1. https://doi.org/10.14507/epaa.v8n1.2000

Durdiaková, J., Celec, P., Laznibatová, J., Minárik, G., Lakatošová, S., Kubranská, A., & Ostatníková, D. (2015). Differences in salivary testosterone, digit ratio and empathy between intellectually gifted and control boys. Intelligence, 48, 76–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2014.11.002

Fan, F. A. (2012). The relationship between the socio-economic status of parents and students' academic achievements in social studies. Research in Education, 87(1), 99-103. https://doi.org/10.7227/RIE.87.1.8

Fink, B., Brookes, H., Neave, N., Manning, J. T., & Geary, D. C. (2006). Second to fourth digit ratio and numerical competence in children. Brain and cognition, 61(2), 211-218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2006.01.001

Geschwind, N., & Galaburda, A. M. (1985). Cerebral lateralization: Biological mechanisms, associations, and pathology: I. A hypothesis and a program for research. Archives of neurology, 42(5), 428-459. https://doi.org/10.1001/archneur.1985.04060050026008

González Barbera, C., Caso Niebla, J., Díaz López, K., & López Ortega, M. (2012). Rendimiento académico y factores asociados: aportaciones de algunas evaluaciones a gran escala. Bordón: revista de pedagogía, 64(2), 51-68.

Higgins, J. P., Thompson, S. G., Deeks, J. J., & Altman, D. G. (2003). Measuring inconsistency in meta-analyses. BMJ (Clinical research ed.), 327(7414), 557–560. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.327.7414.557

Hönekopp, J., & Schuster, M. (2010). A meta-analysis on 2D: 4D and athletic prowess: Substantial relationships but neither hand out-predicts the other. Personality and Individual Differences, 48(1), 4-10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2009.08.009

Hönekopp, J., & Watson, S. (2010). Meta-analysis of digit ratio 2D:4D shows greater sex difference in the right hand. American journal of human biology, 22(5), 619–630. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajhb.21054

Hopp, R. N., de Moraes, J. P., & Jorge, J. (2012). Digit ratio and academic performance in dentistry students. Personality and Individual Differences, 52(5), 643-646. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.12.013

Işık, Ü., Kılıç, F., Aktepe, E., & Tanrıtanır, B. (2020). The relationship between second-to-fourth digit ratios, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms, aggression, and intelligence levels in boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Psychiatry investigation, 17(6), 596-602. https://doi.org/10.30773/pi.2020.0003

Jeevanandam, S., & Muthu, P. K. (2016). 2D:4D Ratio and its Implications in Medicine. Journal of clinical and diagnostic research: JCDR, 10(12), CM01–CM03. https://doi.org/10.7860/JCDR/2016/21952.9000

Kempel, P., Gohlke, B., Klempau, J., Zinsberger, P., Reuter, M., & Hennig, J. (2005). Second-to-fourth digit length, testosterone and spatial ability. Intelligence, 33(3), 215-230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2004.11.004

Kemper, C. J., & Schwerdtfeger, A. (2009). Comparing indirect methods of digit ratio (2D: 4D) measurement. American Journal of Human Biology: The Official Journal of the Human Biology Association, 21(2), 188-191. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajhb.20843

Kiran, G. T., Singh, P. K., Reddy, D., Manohara, R., Himaja, S., & Surekha, Y. (2016). Association between 2D: 4D and Academic Performance in Forensic Medicine among Second Professional MBBS Students. Medico-Legal Update, 16(2), 16-18. https://doi.org/10.5958/0974-1283.2016.00051.7

Luxen, M. F., & Buunk, B. P. (2005). Second-to-fourth digit ratio related to verbal and numerical intelligence and the Big Five. Personality and Individual differences, 39(5), 959-966. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2005.03.016

Manning, J. T., Fink, B., Neave, N., & Caswell, N. (2005). Photocopies yield lower digit ratios (2D: 4D) than direct finger measurements. Archives of sexual behavior, 34(3), 329-333. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-005-3121-y

McKenzie, K., & Schweitzer, R. (2001). Who Succeeds at University? Factors predicting academic performance in first year Australian university students. Higher education research & development, 20(1), 21–33. https://doi.org/10.1080/07924360120043621

Mo, Y., Zhou, Y., Chan, H., Evans, C., & Maddocks, M. (2023). The association between sedentary behaviour and sarcopenia in older adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC geriatrics, 23(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-023-04489-7

Moola, S., Munn, Z., Tufanaru, C., Aromataris, E., Sears, K., Sfetcu, R., Currie, M., Qureshi, R., Mattis, P., Lisy, K., & Mu, P.F. (2020). Chapter 7: Systematic reviews of etiology and risk. In E. Aromataris & Z. Munn (Eds.), JBI Manual for Evidence Synthesis, 1, 217-269. https://doi.org/1046658/JBIMES-20-08

Nye, J. V. C., Androuschak, G., Desierto, D., Jones, G., & Yudkevich, M. (2013). 2D:4D Asymmetry and Gender Differences in Academic Performance. PLOS ONE, 8(3). https://doi.org/10.1371/annotation/8e05e33b-58cf-4983-b021-3a65d27ef2a1

Page, M. J., McKenzie, J. E., Bossuyt, P. M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T. C., Mulrow, C. D., Shamseer, L., Tetzlaff, J.M., Akl, E.A., Brennan, S.E., Chou, R., Glanville, J., Grimshaw, J.M., Hróbjartsson, A., Lalu, M.M., Li, T., Loder, E.W., Mayo-Wilson, E., McDonald, S., … Moher, D. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ, 372(71). https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n71

Piaget, J. (1952). The Origins of Intelligence in Children. International Universities Press.

Poropat, A. E. (2009). A meta-analysis of the five-factor model of personality and academic performance. Psychological bulletin, 135(2), 322-338. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014996

Rayyan, M. K., Salisu, R., Atiku, I. A., & Danborno, B. (2018). 2nd to 4th Digit Ratio (2D: 4D) and mathematics performance among secondary school students in Kaduna. Dutse Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences (DUJOPAS), 4(1), 446-455.

Ribeiro, E., Neave, N., Morais, R. N., & Manning, J. T. (2016). Direct versus indirect measurement of digit ratio (2D: 4D) a critical review of the literature and new data. Evolutionary Psychology, 14(1), 1474704916632536. https://doi.org/10.1177/1474704916632536

Richardson, M., Abraham, C., & Bond, R. (2012). Psychological correlates of university students' academic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 138(2), 353-387. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026838

Robertson, J., Zhang, W., Liu, J. J., Muir, K. R., Maciewicz, R. A., & Doherty, M. (2008). Radiographic assessment of the index to ring finger ratio (2D:4D) in adults. Journal of anatomy, 212(1), 42–48. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7580.2007.00830.x

Romano, M., Leoni, B., & Saino, N. (2006). Examination marks of male university students positively correlate with finger length ratios (2D: 4D). Biological psychology, 71(2), 175-182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2005.03.006

Sánchez, Á., Sánchez-Campillo, J., Moreno-Herrero, D., & Rosales, V. (2014). 2D: 4D values are associated with mathematics performance in business and economics students. Learning and Individual Differences, 36, 110-116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2014.10.001

Selvaraj, R., Prathibha, M., & Dharmalingam, V. (2018). 2D: 4D ratio and its association with examination scores and cognitive abilities in adolescent students-a cross-sectional study. National Journal of Physiology, Pharmacy and Pharmacology, 8(1), 62-67. https://doi.org/10.5455/njppp.2018.8.0727805082017

Smoliga, J. M., Fogaca, L. K., Siplon, J. S., Goldburt, A. A., & Jakobs, F. (2021). Giving science the finger-is the second-to-fourth digit ratio (2D:4D) a biomarker of good luck? A cross sectional study. BMJ (Clinical research ed.), 375, e067849. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj-2021-067849

Steinmayr, R., Meiǹer, A., Weideinger, A. F., & Wirthwein, L. (2014). Academic achievement. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Suurmond, R., van Rhee, H., & Hak, T. (2017). Introduction, comparison, and validation of Meta-Essentials: A free and simple tool for meta-analysis. Research synthesis methods, 8(4), 537–553. https://doi.org/10.1002/jrsm.1260

Teuber, M., Leyhr, D., & Sudeck, G. (2024). Physical activity improves stress load, recovery, and academic performance-related parameters among university students: a longitudinal study on daily level. BMC public health, 24(1), 598. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-18082-z

Valla, J. M., & Ceci, S. J. (2011). Can Sex Differences in Science Be Tied to the Long Reach of Prenatal Hormones? Brain Organization Theory, Digit Ratio (2D/4D), and Sex Differences in Preferences and Cognition. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6(2), 134-146. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691611400236

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes (Vol. 86). Harvard university press.

Zheng, Z., & Mustappha, S. M. (2022). A literature review on the academic achievement of college students. Journal of Education and Social Sciences, 20(1), 11-18.

Crossref
Scopus
Google Scholar
Europe PMC